References

Albanese E, Launer LJ, Egger M Body mass index in midlife and dementia: Systematic review and meta-regression analysis of 589,649 men and women followed in longitudinal studies. Alzheimers Dement (Amst). 2017; 8:165-178 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dadm.2017.05.007

Albury C, Strain WD, Brocq SL, Logue J, Lloyd C, Tahrani A The importance of language in engagement between health-care professionals and people living with obesity: a joint consensus statement. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol. 2020; 8:(5)447-455 https://doi.org/10.1016/S2213-8587(20)30102-9

All-Party Parliamentary Group on Dementia. Dementia does not discriminate: the experiences of Black Asian and minority ethnic communities. 2013. https://www.alzheimers.org.uk/2013-appg-report (accessed 31 July 2023)

Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5-TR), 5th edn. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association; 2013

Bamford C, Wheatley A, Brunskill G Key components of post-diagnostic support for people with dementia and their carers: A qualitative study. PLoS One. 2021; 16:(12) https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0260506

Barber R. Clinical Biomarkers and the diagnosis of dementia, 3rd edn. In: Dening T, Thomas A, Stewart R, Taylor J-P. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 2020

Dementia revealed: what primary care needs to know. A primer for general practice. 2014. https://www.england.nhs.uk/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/dementia-revealed-toolkit.pdf (accessed 31 July 2023)

Care Quality Commission. My diabetes, my care. 2016. https://www.cqc.org.uk/sites/default/files/20160907_CQC_Diabetes_final_copyrightnotice.pdf (accessed 31 July 2023)

Carter J. Prevalence of all cause young onset dementia and time lived with dementia: analysis of primary care health records. Journal of Dementia Care. 2022; 30:(3)1-5

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Brain injury safety tips and prevention. 2021. https://www.cdc.gov/headsup/basics/concussion_prevention.html (accessed 31 July 2023)

Chen GF, Xu TH, Yan Y Amyloid beta: structure, biology and structure-based therapeutic development. Acta Pharmacol Sin. 2017; 38:1205-1235 https://doi.org/10.1038/aps.2017.28

Cheng G, Huang C, Deng H, Wang H. Diabetes as a risk factor for dementia and mild cognitive impairment: a meta-analysis of longitudinal studies. Intern Med J. 2012; 42:(5)484-491 https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1445-5994.2012.02758.x

Curelaru A, Marzolf SJ, Provost JKG, Zeon HHH. Social isolation in dementia: the effects of COVID-19. J Nurse Pract. 2021; 17:(8)950-953 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nurpra.2021.05.002

Department of Health. Living well with dementia: A National Dementia Strategy. 2009. https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/168220/dh_094051.pdf (accessed 31 July 2023)

Department of Health. Prime Minister's challenge on dementia 2020. 2015. https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/414344/pm-dementia2020.pdf (accessed 31 July 2023)

Department of Health. Smoking kills. A white paper on tobacco. 1998. https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/260754/4177.pdf (accessed 31 July 2023)

Domènech-Abella J, Mundó J, Haro JM, Rubio-Valera M. Anxiety, depression, loneliness and social network in the elderly: Longitudinal associations from The Irish Longitudinal Study on Ageing (TILDA). J Affect Disord. 2019; 246:82-88 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2018.12.043

Fox C, Lafortune L, Boustani M, Brayne C. The pros and cons of early diagnosis in dementia. Br J Gen Pract. 2013; 63:(612)e510-e512 https://doi.org/10.3399/bjgp13X669374

Holwerda TJ, Deeg DJ, Beekman AT Feelings of loneliness, but not social isolation, predict dementia onset: results from the Amsterdam Study of the Elderly (AMSTEL). J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2014; 85:(2)135-142 https://doi.org/10.1136/jnnp-2012-302755

Hye A, Velayudhan L. Molecular genetics and biology of dementia, 3rd edn. In: Dening T, Thomas A, Stewart R, Taylor J-P. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 2020

Joe E, Ringman J M. Cognitive symptoms of Alzheimer's disease: clinical management and prevention. BMJ. 2019; 367 https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.l6217

Lacy ME, Gilsanz P, Karter AJ, Quesenberry CP, Pletcher MJ, Whitmer RA. Long-term glycemic control and dementia risk in type 1 diabetes. Diabetes Care. 2018; 41:(11)2339-2345 https://doi.org/10.2337/dc18-0073

Levis B, Sun Y, He C Accuracy of the PHQ-2 alone and in combination with the PHQ-9 for screening to detect major depression: systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA. 2020; 323:(22)2290-2300 https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2020.6504

Liu X, Morris MC, Dhana K Mediterranean-DASH Intervention for Neurodegenerative Delay (MIND) study: rationale, design and baseline characteristics of a randomized control trial of the MIND diet on cognitive decline. Contemp Clin Trials. 2021; 102 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cct.2021.106270

Livingston G, Huntley J, Sommerlad A Dementia prevention, intervention, and care: 2020 report of the Lancet Commission. Lancet. 2020; 396:(10248)413-446 https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30367-6

Livingston G, Sommerlad A, Orgeta V Dementia prevention, intervention, and care. Lancet. 2017; 390:(10113)2673-2734 https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(17)31363-6

McKeith IG. Spectrum of Parkinson's disease, Parkinson's dementia, and Lewy body dementia. Neurol Clin. 2000; 18:(4)865-902 https://doi.org/10.1016/s0733-8619(05)70230-9

NHS England. Hearing tests. 2020. https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/hearing-tests/#:∼:text=You%20can%20get%20a%20free,This%20is%20often%20free (accessed 31 July 2023)

NHS England. Better health – Let's do it. 2023a. https://www.nhs.uk/better-health/ (accessed 31 July 2023)

NHS England. Health check. 2023b. https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/nhs-health-check/ (accessed 31 July 2023)

National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Hypertension in adults: diagnosis and management. NICE Guideline [NG136]. 2022. https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng136 (accessed 31 July 2023)

Norton S, Matthews FE, Barnes DE, Yaffe K, Brayne C. Potential for primary prevention of Alzheimer's disease: an analysis of population-based data. The Lancet Neurology. 2014; 13:(8)788-794

Office for National Statistics. Deaths registered in England and Wales: 2021 (refreshed populations). 2021. https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/birthsdeathsandmarriages/deaths/bulletins/deathsregistrationsummarytables/2021refreshedpopulations (accessed 31 July 2023)

Pham TM, Petersen I, Walters K, Raine R, Manthorpe J, Mukadam N, Cooper C. Trends in dementia diagnosis rates in UK ethnic groups: analysis of UK primary care data. Clin Epidemiol. 2018; 10:949-960 https://doi.org/10.2147/clep.s152647

Primary Care Respiratory Society. Smoking cessation: quick summary. 2023. https://www.pcrs-uk.org/sites/default/files/OS_SmokingCessation.pdf (accessed 31 July 2023)

Public Health England. Health matters: air pollution. 2018. https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/health-matters-air-pollution/health-matters-air-pollution (accessed 31 July 2023)

Ray J, Popli G, Fell G. Association of cognition and age-related hearing impairment in the english longitudinal study of ageing. JAMA Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2018; 144:(10)876-882 https://doi.org/10.1001/jamaoto.2018.1656

Sabia S, Fayosse A, Dumurgier J, Dugravot A, Akbaraly T, Britton A, Kivimäki M, Singh-Manoux A. Alcohol consumption and risk of dementia: 23 year follow-up of Whitehall II cohort study. BMJ. 2018; 362 https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.k2927

Sachdev PS. Social health, social reserve and dementia. Curr Opin Psychiatry. 2022; 35:(2)111-117 https://doi.org/10.1097/YCO.0000000000000779

Sandilyan MB, Dening T. What is dementia?. In: Harrison-Dening K. London: Jessica Kingsley Publishers; 2019

Schott JM. How preventable is dementia?. Pract Neurol. 2022; 22:(6)446-447 https://doi.org/10.1136/pn-2022-003418

Spithoff S, Kahan M. Primary care management of alcohol use disorder and at-risk drinking: Part 2: counsel, prescribe, connect. Can Fam Physician. 2015; 61:(6)515-521

Tang W, Kannaley K, Friedman DB Concern about developing Alzheimer's disease or dementia and intention to be screened: An analysis of national survey data. Arch Gerontol Geriatr. 2017; 71:43-49 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.archger.2017.02.013

Tierney S, Wong G, Roberts N, Boylan AM, Park S, Abrams R, Reeve J, Williams V, Mahtani KR. Supporting social prescribing in primary care by linking people to local assets: a realist review. BMC Med. 2020; 18:(1) https://doi.org/10.1186/s12916-020-1510-7

Mini case study book real world examples of using evidence to improve health services for minority ethnic people. 2012. https://shura.shu.ac.uk/26584/ (accessed 31 July 2023)

Uchida Y, Sugiura S, Nishita Y, Saji N, Sone M, Ueda H. Age-related hearing loss and cognitive decline—the potential mechanisms linking the two. Auris Nasus Larynx. 2019; 46:(1)1-9 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anl.2018.08.010

UK Parliament. Obesity statistics. 2023. https://commonslibrary.parliament.uk/research-briefings/sn03336/ (accessed 31 July 2023)

van der Wardt V, di Lorito C, Viniol A. Promoting physical activity in primary care: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Br J Gen Pract. 2021; 71:(706)e399-e405 https://doi.org/10.3399/BJGP.2020.0817

Vergallo A, Hampel H, Bun RS, Lista S. Biomarkers for Alzheimer's disease, 3rd edn. In: Dening T, Thomas A, Stewart R, Taylor J-P. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 2020

Wiegmann C, Mick I, Brandl EJ, Heinz A, Gutwinski S. Alcohol and dementia - what is the link? a systematic review. Neuropsychiatr Dis Treat. 2020; 16:87-99 https://doi.org/10.2147/ndt.s198772

Winblad B, Amouyel P, Andrieu S Defeating Alzheimer's disease and other dementias: a priority for European science and society. Lancet Neurol. 2016; 15:(5)455-532 https://doi.org/10.1016/s1474-4422(16)00062-4

Wittenberg R, Knapp M, Hu B The costs of dementia in England. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry. 2019; 34:(7)1095-1103

World Health Organization. Depression. 2021. https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/depression (accessed 31 July 2023)

World Health Organization. Air quality and health. 2023. https://www.who.int/teams/environment-climate-change-and-health/air-quality-and-health (accessed 31 July 2023)

Yaman H, Atay E. The effect of exercise prescription of primary care physician on the quality of life in patients. London J Prim Care (Abingdon). 2018; 10:(4)93-98 https://doi.org/10.1080/17571472.2018.1464731

Dementia

Modifiable and non-modifiable risk factors for dementia: what primary care nurses need to know

02 September 2023

Long-Term Conditions

02 September 2023

Volume 28 · Issue 9

ISSN (print): 1462-4753

ISSN (online): 2052-2215

Abstract

Dementia is an umbrella term used to describe a group of symptoms characterised by behavioural changes, loss of cognitive and social functioning brought about by progressive neurological disorders. There are estimated to be 944 000 people living with dementia in the UK and it is indicated that this will increase to 2 million by 2051. We are learning more about the risk factors for developing dementia over the life course. This paper discusses the modifiable and non-modifiable risk factors for dementia and considers health promotion and health education activities that can be used in a primary care setting.

Dementia is a condition characterised by a set of signs and symptoms, including impaired memory, behavioural changes, and loss of cognitive and social functioning brought about by progressive neurological disorders (Barber, 2020). There are over 200 subtypes of dementia, but the most common are Alzheimer's, vascular, Lewy body, mixed dementia (often a combination of Alzheimer's and vascular) and frontotemporal dementias (Sandilyan and Dening, 2019) (Table 1). There are estimated to be 944 000 people living with dementia in the UK and such modelling indicates this will increase to 2 million by 2051 (Wittenberg et al, 2019). While dementia is associated with advanced age, an estimated 7.5% or 70 800 people are living with young onset dementia, where symptoms occur under the age of 65 years (Carter et al, 2022). Dementia and Alzheimer's disease are progressive and life-limiting conditions, and are the leading cause of death for females in England and Wales, accounting for 40 250 deaths (14.0% of all female deaths) (Office for National Statistics (ONS), 2021).

Register now to continue reading

Thank you for visiting Community Nursing and reading some of our peer-reviewed resources for district and community nurses. To read more, please register today. You’ll enjoy the following great benefits: